Aristotle's Four Causes and How it Applies to Your Body and Soul

Plato and Aristotle

Plato says "Hey, forms are up there."

Aristotle says, "Hey, forms are down in here."

Unlike Plato and the early Platonists who posited two causes (Greek αἴτιον, aition), namely form and matter, Aristotle posited four causes. Aristotle's argument against Plato regarding this topic is in Book 1 of his Metaphysics. Saint Thomas Aquinas also covers it in his Commentary on the Metaphysics.

By causes, Aristotle does not here mean something like cause and effect. The Greek word for cause, αἴτιον pronounced aition, is related to the Greek word meaning "responsible." So the four causes are what are responsible for things. I tell my college students that the four causes are like the four "why's." To fully understand an object, we must know it's four "why's."

Now Plato, it seems, held only to form and matter - that is formal causality and material causality. To these two, Aristotle added two more. Aristotle explains why this is in important in Metaphysics Book 1 (Big Alpha). Let's take a look at all four causes:

1. Material cause. The stuff. A thing's material cause is the material of which it consists. A table is made of wood. A statue of marble.
2. Formal cause. The idea or blueprint of a thing. With a golden sphere, the gold is the matter, the sphereness is the form.
3. Efficient cause. This is a moving cause. What brings something about. The carpenter makes the table. The sculpter makes the statue.
4. Final cause. The purpose of a thing. The dinner table is for eating meals on it. A boat is for sailing. 

Essentially, Aristotle includes not just form and matter (like Plato), but also motion (efficient cause) and purpose (final cause). This is why he is well suited for Catholic theology since goals and purposes are integral to reality. It is not enough to discuss the form and matter of things. Most important of all is "What is the purpose of it?" Aristotle provides for questions of teleology - the rationale for purpose and goals.

Let's apply four causes to humans.

1. Material cause. Your body.
2. Formal cause. Your soul.
3. Efficient cause. God, but more proximately, your parents.
4. Final cause. Contemplation of God.

As another example, let's see how St Thomas Aquinas applied the four causes to something non-physical. Here is how St Thomas applies the four causes to law:

1. Material cause. Public promulgation of law. Printing it. Proclaiming it.
2. Formal cause. A precept of reason.
3. Efficient cause. Proper authority. I.e. the duly appointed magistrate.
4. Final cause. The common good of the people. That's the purpose of true laws.

According to St Thomas, if a law is missing any of the four causes, it is not a law.

Scholastics believed that the four causes must be given in a solid definition. This is why law is defined as a "a precept of reason promulgated by proper authority for the common good."

Once you start thinking with the four causes in mind, you will become a sharper thinker and a better communicator. 

If you're catching on and enjoying this, check out this post I wrote on how the Council of Trent applied the Aristotelian causes to human salvation to refute the errors of Martin Luther. 

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

A Better Solution for the German Bishops and Their Church-Tax Dilemma

James Akin has written a clarifying article about the confusing predicament of German Catholics.

In the 19th century, Germany seized Catholic property. To compensate the Church for this, the German state agreed to collect a "church tax" for the Catholics and doll it out to the bishops. This is where the problem begins.

German citizens mark on their tax return that they are Catholics and by doing so their moneys are filtered to the Catholic bishops of Germany.

Some Germans, angry with a number of problems in the Catholic Church in Germany, have begun to declare on their tax returns that they are no longer Catholic. This reduces the reveneue flowing to the Deutsche Bischofskonferenz (the German Bishops' Conference).

The German bishops have rightly confirmed that by declaring "not Catholic" on a public government form, you are denying Christ and thereby leaving the Catholic Church. The bishops are correct, but the whole thing makes them look greedy and unpastoral.

Here is what it sounds like: "We German bishops have moved around pedophiles, and we tolerate heresy and liturgical abuse. We German bishops were even implemented last year in a scandal wherein we owned and operated a secular business that sold pornographic erotica. But when it comes to tax revenue for our us, we're ready to lay down the canon law. No taxes. No sacraments." 

What should be done? Perhaps the bishops, as apostolic men, should should modify the playing field. They are successors of the Apostles with spiritual jurisdiction, right? If they were heroic bishops, they could stand up to the government and refuse the German church tax arrangement in and of itself! The State handling Church money in itself is ungodly. Should Caesar mediate funds between the laity and the bisohps? If German bishops rejected this arrangement, then German citizens would not be placed into an occasion of sin with regard to public apostasy on their tax return.

Sure, the German bishops would lose even more money, as Germany would never go for it. But it's worth it to be free from the yoke of the state.

If the Catholic Church in Germany cleaned up her house and refused the state's "service" of tax collecting, I bet you the Church their would grow, people would see heroic action, and sanctity would be sowed once again in that great nation wherein the Faith was planted by Saint Boniface. 

Meanwhile, the German bishops lose even more credibility and their sheep will continue to wonder about clerical motives and eventually wander away.

I'm not saying that it is morally permissible to deny one's Catholic faith on a public tax return. That is a mortal sin. Those Catholics who have done so on their tax forms have committed a mortal sin. "If you deny before men, I will deny you before the Father," says Christ our Lord. Yet the very arrangement, and the German bishops' endorsement of that arrangement, is lamentable. 

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Crucified Rabbi Updated and Available Again on Kindle

My first book The Crucified Rabbi: Judaism and the Origins of Catholicism has been recently updated. A few typos were cleared up and the sections on supersessionism and anti-Semitism have been rewritten after I have received feedback, emails, and comments over the last couple years.

The Kindle version of The Crucified Rabbi was down because of this for about three weeks, but it is once again available. If you have the old Kindle version and want the updated one, just download it again for free and receive the new file.

Thank you.

ad Jesum per Mariam,

Taylor Marshall, PhD

PS: I am getting more and more emails and reminders from people and small bookstores about the third book on Jerusalem and Rome and why Rome must be the earthly capital of Christianity - The Eternal City.

It's basically finished. It needs an Index and a good edit. Stayed tune for details.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

How Aristotle's 10 Categories Relate to Eucharistic Transubstantiation

In the Catechism we learn that in the miracle of transubstantiation, the substances of bread and wine "transubstantiate" into the substance of Christ. What remains are the accidents. Here, accident refers to what is incidental and not essential.

Most catechized Catholics are able to explain that in the Eucharist, the substance of bread and wine become the substance of Christ, yet the incidental features of bread and wine (color, taste, smell, weight, size, etc.) remain.

According to Aristotle, there are ten categories by which we can predicate. When we say, "This is ________" we can fill in the blank in ten ways. I can point at a dog and say, "This is  ___________" and answer in ten ways. For example, I could point to dog and say, "This thing is a dog," or I could say, "This thing is black" or I could say "This is 25 pounds" or I could say "This thing is on the floor." All would be true.

However, when I say "This thing is a dog," I speak of its substance. When I say, "This thing is black," I speak of its accidents.

Aristotle says that in the 10 ways that we predicate, one is to speak of the substance, the other nine ways are accidents - things that can change or are non-essential. So then, substances are unique in that they are independent. The other nine categories are “accidental.” These nine categories each depend on substances and can’t exist on their own, e.g. redness, double, smallness, etc.

Let's take a look at these 10 Categories:

1.    Substance (ousia, “essence” or “substance”). Substance is defined as that which neither can be predicated of anything nor be said to be in anything. Hence, this particular man or that particular tree are substances. Later in the text, Aristotle calls these particulars “primary substances”, to distinguish them from secondary substances, which are universals and can be predicated. Hence, Socrates is a primary substance, while man is a secondary substance. Man is predicated of Socrates, and therefore all that is predicated of man is predicated of Socrates.

2.    Quantity (poson, “how much”). This is the extension of an object, and may be either discrete or continuous. Further, its parts may or may not have relative positions to each other. All medieval discussions about the nature of the continuum, of the infinite and the infinitely divisible, are a long footnote to this text. It is of great importance in the development of mathematical ideas in the medieval and late Scholastic period.

3.    Quality (poion, “of what kind or quality”). This is a determination which characterizes the nature of an object.

4.    Relation (pros ti, “toward something”). This is the way in which one object may be related to another.

5.    Place (pou, “where”). Position in relation to the surrounding environment.

6.    Time (pote, “when”). Position in relation to the course of events.

7.    Position (keisthai, “to lie”). The examples Aristotle gives indicate that he meant a condition of rest resulting from an action: ‘Lying’, ‘sitting’. Thus position may be taken as the end point for the corresponding action. The term is, however, frequently taken to mean the relative position of the parts of an object (usually a living object), given that the position of the parts is inseparable from the state of rest implied.

8.    State or habitus (echein, “to have”). The examples Aristotle gives indicate that he meant a condition of rest resulting from an affection (i.e. being acted on): ‘shod’, ‘armed’. The term is, however, frequently taken to mean the determination arising from the physical accoutrements of an object: one’s shoes, one’s arms, etc. Traditionally, this category is also called a habitus (from Latin habere, “to have”).

9.    Action (poiein, “to make” or “to do”). The production of change in some other object.

10.    Affection (paschein, “to suffer” or “to undergo”). The reception of change from some other object. It is also known as passivity. It is clear from the examples Aristotle gave for action and for affection that action is to affection as the active voice is to the passive. Thus for action he gave the example, ‘to lance’, ‘to cauterize’; for affection, ‘to be lanced’, ‘to be cauterized.’ The term is frequently misinterpreted to mean a kind of emotion or passion.

Here's a chart:

Categories	Aristotle’s Term	Greek	Examples
Substance/Essence	“substance” “this” “what-it-is”	ousia tode ti ti esti	man, horse Socrates “Socrates is a man”
Quantity	How much	poson	four-foot, five-foot
Quality	What sort	poion	white, literate
Relation	related to what	pros ti	double, half, greater
Location	Where	pou	in the Lyceum, in the marketplace
Time	When	pote	yesterday, last year
Position	Being situated	keisthai	lies, sits
Habit	Having, possession	echein	is shod, is armed
Action	Doing	poiein	cuts, burns
Passion	Undergoing	paschein	is cut, is burned

Remember, good theology always depends on good philosophy. The root of every heresy is an incorrect philosophical principle applied to divine revelation.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Today commemorates England's Marian Apparition: Our Lady of Walsingham

Our Lady of Walsingham - England's Apparition of Mary

Most Catholics know of France's famous Marian apparitions, such as those at Lourdes and Rue du Bac, and also the greater Marian apparition sites such as the one at Fatima, Portugal or Guadalupe, Mexico. 

England's once famous shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham is not as well known due to the onset of Protestantism in the 1500s. Thankfully, the apparition is receiving greater devotion due to the efforts of Catholics and Anglicans with a love for the Blessed Virgin. 

The tradition of Our Lady of Walsingham began with an apparition of the Immaculate Mother of God  to Richeldis de Faverches, a Catholic English noblewoman, in 1061 in the village of Walsingham in Norfolk, England.

The Mother of God revealed the archetectural plans of the Holy House of the Holy Family in Nazareth and she asked Lady Richeldis to build the house as a shrine and place of pilgrimage.

The Holy House of Walsingham was an exact copy of of the home in which the Annunciation occurred. The chapel was founded in the time of Edward the Confessor, about 1053, the earliest deeds naming Richeldis, the mother of Geoffrey of Favraches as the founder. In 1169, Geoffrey granted 'to God and St. Mary and to Edwy his clerk the chapel of our Lady' which his mother had founded at Walsingham with the intention that Edwy should found a priory. These gifts were, shortly afterwards, confirmed to the Austin Canons of Walsingham by Robert de Brucurt and Roger, earl of Clare.

By 1500, Our Lady of Walsingham had become one of the greatest religious centres in England, and Europe, together with Glastonbury and Canterbury. It became the third most popular place of pilgrimage next to Rome and Compostella, Spain. 

The suppression of Walsingham came late in 1538. The Protestant bishop Latimer wrote of the image of Mary that "She hath been the Devil's instrument, I fear, to bring many to eternal fire; now she herself with her older sister of Walsingham, her younger sister of Ipswich, and their two sisters of Doncaster and Penrhys will make a jolly muster in Smithfield. They would not be all day in burning". Horrid words that reveal the hate of early Anglicans for images and for the Blessed Virgin.

King Henry VIII approved for the image of Our Lady of Walsingham to be burned. This confirms that Henry VIII was an impious and perfidious tyrant. Those who claim that Henry VIII remained Catholic "in his heart" are deceived. He was a murderous and adulterous man who mocked the papacy.

"It was the month of July, the images of Our Lady of Walsingham and Ipswich were brought up to London with all the jewels that hung around them, at the King's commandment, and divers other images, both in England and Wales, that were used for common pilgrimage...and they were burnt at Chelsea by my Lord Privy Seal". 

In 1897 Pope Leo XIII re-established the restored 14th century Slipper Chapel as a Roman Catholic shrine, now the centre of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham. The Holy House had been rebuilt at the Church of the Annunciation at King's Lynn.

There is a prophecy that when England returns to Our Lady of Walsingham, Our Lady will return to England. It seems, then, that this Marian shrine is intimately associated with the spiritual health of Merry Ol' England.

Our Lady of Walsingham, pray for us.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

When Muslims Use to Enslave Christians...Mary Intervened!

Our Lady of Ransom with her holy Mercedarian sons
under her blue mantle

Between 1200 till the 1800s, more than 1.2 million European Christians were kidnapped and enslaved by Muslims.

Muslims landed on European soil, raided towns, and then enslaved Europeans. Attacks fell on most Mediterranean countries: Italy, Spain, France, Portugal. However, they also attacked England, Ireland, Scotland, and even Iceland. Even Thomas Jefferson showed concern about these raids as they might extend to the New World.

As Americans, we think of slavery in terms of African slaves on American soil. Yet during these centuries, there were blond and blued slaves, Italian slaves, and Spanish slaves living in servitude in cities such as Tripoli, Algiers, Tunis. Even St Vincent de Paul was a slave under a Mohammedan master.

Our Lady, the Blessed Virgin Mary, always cares for her children. Marian apparitions are always moments of maternal care for her children. This is why she appeared on September 24 in AD 1223 and asked for a special order be founded to redeem Christian slaves.

St. Peter Nolasco received this message from the Immaculate Mary and set to work. His spiritual director St Raymond of Pennafort and his temporal lord King James of Spain also received the message from Our Lady. With their aide, St. Peter Nolasco founded the Mercedarians with approval of King James and Pope Gregory IX. They took up the Rule of Saint Augustine (like the Dominicans did). Mary showed him a white habit, which the Mercederians took as their habit.

These holy religious men made a fourth vow to offer their own persons in exchange for Christian slaves. They would willingly trade themselves for other Christians. These men were fervent and proficient Christians in the way of divine charity.

It is estimated that these holy Mercedarians redeemed 900,000 Christian slaves from the Mohammedans from 1224 till 1787. That is an amazing amount of mercy. This alone is an argument for the truth of Christianity!

So don't worry about threats to the Church. Mary love us. She is our mother. She will intervene and help us. If we fall under attack again (well, we already are), then she will intervene for us. Christ is the King of Mercy. She is the Queen of Mercy.

Our Lady of Ransom, pray for us.

HT: Fr Phil Wolfe 

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Does Mary's title Theotokos translate as Mother of God?

The third Ecumenical Council, convened at Ephesus in AD 431, dogmatically decreed that Mary is the Theotokos. The Theotokos is a Greek title consisting of two words: Theos meaning "God" and tokos meaning "bearer" or "birther."

The heretic Nestorius taught that Mary was the mother of Christ's human nature, but not the mother of His divine nature. It is true that Christ derived his human nature from Mary alone and did not derive His divine nature from Mary. If Nestorius said only this, he would not have been a heretic. 

Instead Nestorius made the claim that Mary was the mother of only His humanity. The problem is that mothers do not give birth to "natures," mothers give birth to "persons." Mary did not birth the human nature of Christ, she birthed the Person of Christ. The Person of Christ is the one and undivided Second Person of the Trinity.

Nestorius' heretical formula essentially creates two Jesus Christ's - the divine Jesus that Mary did not birth and the human Jesus that Mary did birth. But we don't believe in two Christ's. We believe in one Jesus Christ.

The Catholic Pope Celestine and the orthodox bishops rightfully defended the teaching that Mary birthed the whole Person of Christ. Since Christ is a divine person, she birthed God Himself. Hence, she is rightly called Theotokos or "God-bearer."

Now some Protestants that I have met will grant that Mary is the Theotokos or God-bearer but NOT say that she is Mother of God. They claim that "Mother of God" is an incorrect translation of Theotokos.

Are they right? No.

Now the Latin West had translated Mary's title Greek title Theotokos in two ways:

Dei Genitrix and Mater Dei

Dei Genitrix literally means "birther of God." Genitrix, a feminine form of generator, is related to our words genetic and genes. This is the most literal way of translated Theotokos into Latin.

Mater Dei means "mother of God" and it is also very common. It uses a more simple and familiar word - mater or mother. Nobody I know refers to their mother as "my genetrix" or "my genetress" or even "my birther." Mother is more natural. Hence, Mater Dei or Mother of God became the most common Latin title for Mary. It actually predates Theotokos since it is found in the Gospel of Saint Luke. Saint Elizabeth says to the Blessed Virgin:

“And whence is this to me that the mother of my Lord should come to me?” (Luke 1:43, D-R)

The Greek here is Mater Kyriou, meaning "Mother of the Lord." So then, in the tradition of the Church, at the Council of Ephesus and in Scripture we have linguistic and theological justification for calling Mary "Mother of God" and also Dei Genetrix and Theotokos. All three terms generate (pun intended) the same meaning:

Mary birthed one single Divine Person - the Second Person of the Trinity. She didn't birth half of Him, part of Him, or only His nature. She is truly the Mother of God the Son.

Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death. Amen.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

A Beautiful Prayer for Election Year by Archbishop Carroll

Archbishop John Carroll, first bishop of the United States

Archbishop John Carroll (cousin of Charles Carroll - the only Catholic signer of the Declaration of Independence) was the very first bishop of the United States - appointed in 1789 by Pope Pius VI.

In 1791, Archbishop Carroll composed the following prayer to be recited in parishes of the United States. It's beautiful and worthy of our prayers as our nation faces so many crises - in particular the government's restriction of the liberty of the Church and her bishops.

Please consider praying the following prayer for the United States:

We pray, Thee O Almighty and Eternal God! Who through Jesus Christ hast revealed Thy glory to all nations, to preserve the works of Thy mercy, that Thy Church, being spread through the whole world, may continue with unchanging faith in the confession of Thy Name.

We pray Thee, who alone art good and holy, to endow with heavenly knowledge, sincere zeal, and sanctity of life, our chief bishop, Pope N., the Vicar of Our Lord Jesus Christ, in the government of his Church; our own bishop, N., all other bishops, prelates, and pastors of the Church; and especially those who are appointed to exercise amongst us the functions of the holy ministry, and conduct Thy people into the ways of salvation.

We pray Thee O God of might, wisdom, and justice! Through whom authority is rightly administered, laws are enacted, and judgment decreed, assist with Thy Holy Spirit of counsel and fortitude the President of these United States, that his administration may be conducted in righteousness, and be eminently useful to Thy people over whom he presides; by encouraging due respect for virtue and religion; by a faithful execution of the laws in justice and mercy; and by restraining vice and immorality. Let the light of Thy divine wisdom direct the deliberations of Congress, and shine forth in all the proceedings and laws framed for our rule and government, so that they may tend to the preservation of peace, the promotion of national happiness, the increase of industry, sobriety, and useful knowledge; and may perpetuate to us the blessing of equal liberty.

We pray for his excellency, the governor of this state, for the members of the assembly, for all judges, magistrates, and other officers who are appointed to guard our political welfare, that they may be enabled, by Thy powerful protection, to discharge the duties of their respective stations with honesty and ability.

We recommend likewise, to Thy unbounded mercy, all our brethren and fellow citizens throughout the United States, that they may be blessed in the knowledge and sanctified in the observance of Thy most holy law; that they may be preserved in union, and in that peace which the world cannot give; and after enjoying the blessings of this life, be admitted to those which are eternal.

Finally, we pray to Thee, O Lord of mercy, to remember the souls of Thy servants departed who are gone before us with the sign of faith and repose in the sleep of peace; the souls of our parents, relatives, and friends; of those who, when living, were members of this congregation, and particularly of such as are lately deceased; of all benefactors who, by their donations or legacies to this Church, witnessed their zeal for the decency of divine worship and proved their claim to our grateful and charitable remembrance. To these, O Lord, and to all that rest in Christ, grant, we beseech Thee, a place of refreshment, light, and everlasting peace, through the same Jesus Christ, Our Lord and Savior. Amen.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Video: The Boiling Blood of St Januarius

Every year on September 19 (today), thousands of people assemble at the cathedral in Naples to witness the miracle of the blood of Saint Januarius. This miracle has occurred annually since AD 1389.*

Saint Januarius was the bishop of Naples and received the palm of martyrdom under Diocletian's persecution of the Catholic Church (ca. AD 303).

Somehow samples of the martyr's blood were acquired and stored in a small vial. Today, this vial contains a dark reddish dried residue.

On the feastday, the archbishop of Naples holds up the reliquary containing the blood and shows that the vials contain the dry and solid remains of blood. Next, the archbishop places the reliquary on top of the altar of Saint Clare along with the bones of the saint.

The people begin to pray and shout and then the blood begins to liquify. The archbishop then moves the reliquary around to show that the once-solid contents are now liquid (see video below). The Neapolitans commemorate the miracle with a 21 gun salute. The liquified blood remains in the vial on the altar for 8 days.

Here's a video of the miracle:

Saint Januarius, holy martyr, pray for us.

* This miracle also happens on Dec 16 and the first Sunday in May.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Did St Joseph of Cupertino Really Float Around Above the Earth?

Saint Joseph of Cupertino was born on June 17, 1603 in the small town of Cupertino. His father died when he was young, leaving his mother with nothing but debt. Evicted from their home, little Joseph was born in a stable like Christ our Lord.

When Joseph was eight years old, he began to experience visions. His family thought he was lazy and ill-equipped for work. At the age of 17, he sought to enter the Conventual Franciscans but was rejected for his poor intellect. The Capuchin Franciscans accepted him as lay brother. His virtue and piety commended him to Holy Orders and he was ordained priest in 1625. Although he could hardly read, he seemed to possess a supernatural insight. He would only eat food on Thursdays and Sundays. As a priest, he celebrated seven Lents (40 days) of fasting per year. His life was one of continual penance.

He would enter into ecstasy whenever God, Mary, or the saints were mentioned. Often times, he would begin to levitate off the ground - so much so that the friars would tie him to objects. Simply seeing an image of the Blessed Virgin would send him floating.

Once, when he kissed the foot of the Pope, he also began to elevate into the air to the amazement of all nearby - the Holy Father included.

The friars tried to interrupt St Joseph's ecstasy's by striking him, poking him with needles, or by burning his flesh. Nothing would move him except the voice of his superior.

Joseph for thirty-five years was not allowed to attend choir, enter the common refectory, walk in procession, or say a public Mass since his appearance and elevations caused so much commotion.

He was beatified by Benedict XIV in 1753, and canonized 16 July 1767 by Clement XIII.

The collect for his Mass cryptically refers to his elevation and floating:

O God, who didst purpose to draw all things unto Thy Son when He was lifted up from the earth, mercifully grant that we, by the merits and example of Thy seraphic confessor Joseph, being lifted above all earthly desires, may be worthy to come unto Him. Who with Thee, liveth and reigneth, etc.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Who are the Certain Saints Mentioned in the Holy Mass

The Roman Canon of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass contains two prayers that list specific saints. The first is the Communicantes and the second is the Nobis quoque peccatoribus. The Communicantes lists Our Lady, Saint Joseph, and 24 saints (all male). The Nobis quoque peccatoribus lists 15 martyr saints (male and female).

Let's take a look at the Communicantes:

Communicantes, et memoriam venerantes, in primis gloriosae semper Virginis Mariae, Genetricis Dei et Domini nostri Iesu Christi: sed et beati Ioseph, eiusdem Virginis Sponsi,
et beatorum Apostolorum ac Martyrum tuorum, Petri et Pauli, Andreae, Iacobi, Ioannis, Thomae, Iacobi, Philippi, Bartholomaei, Matthaei, Simonis et Thaddaei:
Lini, Cleti, Clementis, Xysti, Cornelii, Cypriani, Laurentii, Chrysogoni, Ioannis et Pauli, Cosmae et Damiani et omnium Sanctorum tuorum; quorum meritis precibusque concedas,
ut in omnibus protectionis tuae muniamur auxilio. Per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen.

First is the glorious Ever Virgin Mary, Mother of God and Our Lord Jesus Christ. Next, is Saint Joseph the Spouse of the Virgin (this invocation of Joseph was added by His Holiness Pope John XXIII).

Then 24 saints follow. The number is significant for two reasons. First is it 2 x 12. The number twelve denotes the fullness of God's people. For example, in the Apocalypse they are symbolically numbered 144,000 (12 x 12 x 1000). The second significance is that the Apocalypse describes 24 elders or ancients around the liturgical throne of the the Lamb of God in Heaven.

“And round about the throne were four and twenty seats: and upon the seats, four and twenty ancients sitting, clothed in white garments. And on their heads were crowns of gold.” (Revelation 4:4, D-R)

The first 12 saints listed are 12 Apostles: "Peter and Paul, Andrew, James and John, Thomas, James, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew, Simon and Jude."

Note here, that Judas Iscariot is not present for obvious reasons. However, Matthias, the Apostle who replaced Judas is also absent. Instead, Saint Paul is included at the head of the list to bring the number of Apostles to 12. Don't worry, Matthias appears in the Nobis quoque, which we will discuss below.

The next 12 are early martyrs of the Catholic Church: "Linus, Cletus, Clement, Sixtus, Cornelius, Cyprian, Lawrence, Chrysogonus, John and Paul, Cosmas and Damian." These saints represent the hierarchy of the Catholic Church: Pope, bishop, deacon, laity.

The first five are martyred Popes:

1) Saint Linus - the second Pope; successor to Saint Peter

2) Saint Cletus - the third Pope; successor to Saint Linus

3) Saint Clement - the fourth Pope; successor to Saint Cletus; author of 1 Clement

4) Saint Sixtus II -  reigned as Pope from A.D. 257-258 and martyred under the persecutions of the Emperor Valerian. His beloved deacon was the well-known Saint Lawrence.

5) Saint Cornelius - reigned as Pope from A.D. 251-253. He was martyred under the Emperor Gallus. 

The next saint is a bishop:

6) Saint Cyprian - defender of the Catholic faith; beheaded in Carthage, Africa in AD 258.

The next saint is a deacon:

7) Saint Lawrence was martyred under the same Valerian edict that condemned Pope Saint Sixtus II mentioned above. Lawrence was roasted alive on a grid iron.

The next five saints are laymen:

8) Saint Chrysogonus was an officially that received martyrdom in the persecutions of Emperor Diocletian.

9 & 10) Saints John and Paul were martyred under Julian the Apostate. Here's a previous post I did on these two saints.

11 & 12) Saints Cosmas and Damian were physicians who were martyred in Syria, around A.D. 287 during the Diocletian persecutions. These men were fantastic, here's a post I did on the legend of how that transplanted a black man's leg onto a white man.

What's wonderful about these saints is that they represent the popes, bishops, deacons, and laity of the Catholic Church...but not just in the city of Rome. We have martyrs in Rome, Africa (Cyprian), Asia (Cosmas & Damian), and Europe (Chrysogonus).

The dates of their martyrdoms reveal that the prayer came to be after the persecutions of Diocletion. This places the prayer in the late AD 300s or 400s. Pretty early! This confirms the Roman tradition that the Canon of the Mass was established in essence by Pope Saint Damasus who reigned from AD 366-84. Words from Pope Innocent I (reigned AD 401-17) reveal that the Canon of the Mass was already established and received as something sacred.

Next we turn to the Nobis quoque peccatoribus:

Nobis quoque peccatoribus, famulis tuis, de multitudine miserationum tuarum sperantibus, partem aliquam et societatem donare digneris, cum tuis sanctis Apostolis et Martyribus: cum Ioanne, Stephano, Matthia, Barnaba, (Ignatio, Alexandro, Marcellino, Petro, Felicitate, Perpetua, Agatha, Lucia, Agnete, Caecilia, Anastasia) et omnibus Sanctis tuis: intra quorum nos consortium, non aestimator meriti, sed veniae, quaesumus, largitor admitte. Per Christum Dominum nostrum.

Of the 15 saints in the Nobis quoque peccatoribus, the first 8 saints are male; the last 7 saints are female:

1) John the Baptist

2) Stephen

3) Matthias the Apostle

4) Barnabas the companion of Saint Paul

5) Ignatius of Antioch, a martyr bishop

6) Alexander, a martyr Pope

7 & 8) Marcellinus and Peter were a priest and exorcist who were martyred together

9 & 10) Felicity and Perpetua were female martyrs from Africa

11) Agatha, a virgin martyr from Sicily

12) Lucy, a virgin martyr from Sicily

13) Agnes, a virgin martyr of Rome

14) Cecilia, a virgin martyr of Rome, patroness of music

15) Anastasia, a virgin martyr from Croatia.

When the Church invokes these saints, she receives the prayers of powerful intercessors in Heaven. Moreover, these saints remind us that we are a Church of martyrs, that the pathway to Heaven in cruciform.

Holy Saints of the Roman Canon, pray for us!

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Origin of the Fatima Prayer in the Holy Rosary

Today when Catholics pray the Holy Rosary, they append the following prayer at the end of each decade:

"O my Jesus, forgive us our sins, save us from the fires of hell, lead all souls to Heaven, especially those most in need of Thy mercy. Amen."

This extra prayer was requested by the Blessed Virgin Mary in her apparition at Fatima and Catholics have obediently included it in their recitation of her Rosary.

It's a prayer for forgiveness and mercy for sinners. It adds a penitential feature to the Holy Rosary. It is a reminder to us that Our Blessed Mother loves us and is always seeking ways for us to grow closer to her Son Jesus Christ.

One historical curiosity is that Sister Lucia claims that the original prayer did not include the word "thy mercy" at the end of the prayer. I'd be interested if anyone knows who that part was added and what was the justification. Does the original Portugese version suggest that reading?

At Fisher More College, we are trying to figure out which is the best rending of the original in Latin. Any Latin/Portugese/Fatima experts out there?

HT: Albert Doskey

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

The Difference between Dark Night of the Soul and Dark Night of the Senses (according to St John of the Cross)

Saint John of the Cross, Doctor of the Church

According to Saint Paul and Saint John of the Cross and the masters of Mystical Theology, such as John Tauler, the spiritual life consists in three ages:

Beginners (Purgative Way)

Proficients (Illuminative Way)

Perfect (Unitive Way)

Incidentally, by Perfect we mean not absolute perfection (like the saints in Heaven) but relative perfection. These three ages mirror natural human life:

Childhood

Adolescence

Adulthood

Just as these three stages are transitioned by a crisis, so also progress in the spiritual life is marked by crisis.

Saint John of the Cross, the Doctor of the Church with regard to Mystical Theology, teaches that the transition from the Purgative to the Illuminative is occasioned by the "Dark Night of the Senses" and the transition from the Illuminative to the Unitive is occasioned by the Dark Night of the Spirit.

Beginners (Purgative Way)

   Dark Night of Senses

Proficients (Illuminative Way)

   Dark Night of the Spirit

Perfect (Unitive Way)

The Dark Night of the Senses is the crisis in which God purposefully withdraws consolations of the senses. Warm fuzzies in prayer. Discursive pictorial visions in the imagination, physical comfort, lack of external distraction.

This is very difficult because the Christian begins to worry that he is regressing or has done something to lose God's favor. Instead, God is preparing him to enter more deeply in the love of God. The soul learns to seek the God of consolation, but not merely the consolations of God. Perhaps this Dark Night of the Senses is one of the most misunderstood elements of daily Christian living.

The Dark Night of the Spirit or Dark Night of the Soul is a crushing desolation where the soul learns to love the cross of Christ. With a desire to be more like Christ and to share in His life, the perfect learn to love persecution, humiliations, disgrace, and other problems in life since they see in them a perfect conformity to God. Two well known modern examples are Saint Pio and Saint Therese. We this is state of perfection in the Apostles:

“And calling in the apostles, after they had scourged them, they charged them that they should not speak at all in the name of Jesus. And they dismissed them. And they indeed went from the presence of the council, rejoicing that they were accounted worthy to suffer reproach for the name of Jesus.” (Acts 5:40–41, D-R)

Saints Peter and John rejoiced in their sufferings. This is not something naturally, but something utterly supernatural - it is a sign of the unitive way. The Apostles, we might say, went through the Dark Night of the Senses from Good Friday till Easter and the Dark Night of the Spirit from the Ascension to Pentecost. This, at least, is the position of Fr Garrigou-Lagrange.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Did Christ our Lord have the Beatific Vision from His Conception and Birth?

At Summa theologiae III, q. 64., a. 4 (see article at NewAdvent.org), Saint Thomas Aquinas asks whether Christ had the beatific vision from the moment of His Conception of the Holy Spirit in the womb of the Blessed Virgin.

Before looking at the answer, it is useful to know that scholastic theologians distinguish between wayfairers (viators) and those who have already arrived in the homeland of heaven. Wayfairers are us on earth or in purgatory who are traveling to path of grace and trying to arrive at the beatific vision of God in heaven. The goal of the Christian life of grace is to finally arrive at the beatific vision of God's essence.

So when the Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, did He retain the vision of the Divine essence? Did Christ have the beatific vision of this divine nature or did He somehow blind Himself of it? Is it something He lost at conception but regained later at His resurrection? These are questions that are currently very controversial in contemporary theological disputes.

Saint Thomas Aquinas teaches that Christ had the beatific vision perfectly from the moment of conception of the Holy Spirit:

It is written (Psalm 64:5): "Blessed is he whom Thou hast chosen, end taken to Thee"; which words, according to the gloss, refer to Christ's human nature, which "was taken by the Word of God unto the unity of Person." But human nature was taken by the Word of God in the first instant of His conception. Therefore, in the first instant of His conception, Christ, as man, was in the state of beatitude; which is to be a comprehensor.

I answer that, As appears from what was said above (Article 3), it was unbecoming that in His conception Christ should receive merely habitual grace without the act. Now, He received grace "not by measure" (John 3:34), as stated above (Question 7, Article 11). But the grace of the "wayfarer," being short of that of the "comprehensor," is in less measure than that of the comprehensor. Wherefore it is manifest that in the first instant of His conception Christ received not only as much grace as comprehensors have, but also greater than that which they all have. And because that grace was not without its act, it follows that He was a comprehensor in act, seeing God in His Essence more clearly than other creatures.

Reply to Objection 1. As stated above (Question 19, Article 3), Christ did not merit the glory of the soul, in respect of which He is said to have been a comprehensor, but the glory of the body, to which He came through His Passion. Wherefore the reply to the Second Objection is clear.

Reply to Objection 3. Since Christ was both God and man, He had, even in His humanity, something more than other creatures--namely, that He was in the state of beatitude from the very beginning.

The fact that Christ experienced the beatific vision from conception also reveals that Christ did not have faith or hope. He had the theological virtue of charity, but He did not have faith or hope. As Saint Paul taught, "Faith is the evidence of things that appear not," but Christ has the full vision of God. Hence He does not have faith. Of course, Christ was faithful to His Mission and to the Father. He also had trust in the Father. Yet, the theological virtue of faith, strictly speaking, did not reside in His soul.

The same applies to the virtue of hope. Saint Paul taught: "What a man seeth, why doth he hope for?" Father Garrigou-Lagrange observes that, "St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure are of the opinion that the habit of faith cannot co-exist with the beatific vision. Thus St. Thomas says: "The object of faith is a divine thing not seen. But the habit of virtue... takes its species from the object. Hence, if we deny that the divine thing was not seen, we exclude the very essence of faith."

This does not make Christ less human or imply a fault in Him. Rather, it makes Him so a great a Redeemer and Savior. He was fully divine and His soul was deified by the vision of His divine nature. By virtue of His created soul's share in the beatific vision, He is able to share this mystery with our souls.

Christe eleison.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

St. Anselm's Prayer for the Nativity of Mary

Saint Anselm's prayer in honor of the Nativity of the Immaculate Mary:

Vouchsafe that I may praise thee, O sacred Virgin; give me strength against thine enemies, and against the enemy of the whole human race. Give me strength humbly to pray to thee. Give me strength to praise thee in prayer with all my powers, through the merits of thy most sacred nativity, which for the entire Christian world was a birth of joy, the hope and solace of its life. When thou wast born, O most holy Virgin, then was the world made light. 

Happy is thy stock, holy thy root, and blessed thy fruit, for thou alone as a virgin, filled with the Holy Spirit, didst merit to conceive thy God, as a virgin to bear Thy God, as a virgin to bring Him forth, and after His birth to remain a virgin.

Have mercy therefore upon me a sinner, and give me aid, O Lady, so that just as thy nativity, glorious from the seed of Abraham, sprung from the tribe of Juda, illustrious from the stock of David, didst announce joy to the entire world, so may it fill me with true joy and cleanse me from every sin.

Pray for me, O Virgin most prudent, that the gladsome joys of thy most helpful nativity may put a cloak over all my sins. Amen.

HT: Fisheaters

O holy Mother of God, flowering as the lily, pray to thy sweet Son for me, a wretched sinner. Amen.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Meditations on the Birthday of the Blessed Virgin Mary - Sept 8

The feast commemorating the birth of the Immaculate Virgin Mary from the womb of Saint Anne in the sixth century in Syria or Jerusalem. The Church of Rome began celebrating the feast of Our Lady's Nativity as early as the seventh century, since we know that Pope Sergius I (687-701) prescribed a litany to be recited for the festival.

Concerning the birth of Our Lady, Saint Andrew of Crete gave a beautiful exposition, exhorting the faithful to find encouragement for their lives in the glorious birth of Mary:

People of God, holy nation, sacred gathering! Let us revere our paternal memory; let us extol the power of the mystery! Each of us, in the measure given by grace, let us offer a worthy gift for the present feast. Fathers -- a prosperous lineage; mothers -- fine children; the unbearing -- the not-bearing of sin; virgins -- a twofold prudence, of soul and of body; betrothed -- praiseworthy abstinence. If anyone of you be a father, let him imitate the father of the Virgin; and if anyone be without child -- let them make harvest of fruitful prayer, cultivating a life pleasing to God. The mother, feeding her children, let her rejoice together with Anna, raising her Child, given to her in infertility through prayer.

She that is barren, not having given birth, lacking the blessing of a child, let her come with faith to the God-given Offshoot of Anna and offer there her barrenness. The virgin, living blamelessly, let her be a mother by discourse, adorning by word the elegance of soul. For a betrothed -- let her offer mental sacrifice from the fruits of prayer. All together rich and poor, lads and maidens, old and young (Ps 48:2, 148:12), priests and levites -- let all together keep the feast in honor of the Maiden, the Theotokos and the Prophetess: from Her has issued forth the Prophet, foretold by Moses, Christ God and Truth (Dt 18:15). Amen.

Here is a description of the holy birth of Mary by the mystic Venerable Maria Agreda:

She was born pure and stainless, beautiful and full of grace, thereby demonstrating, that She was free from the law and the tribute of sin. Although She was born substantially like other daughters of Adam, yet her birth was accompanied by such circumstances and conditions of grace, that it was the most wonderful and miraculous birth in all creation and will eternally redound to the praise of her Maker. At twelve o’clock in the night this divine Luminary issued forth, dividing the night of the ancient Law and its pristine darknesses from the new day of grace, which now was about to break into dawn. She was clothed, handled and dressed like other infants, though her soul dwelt in the Divinity; and She was treated as an infant, though She excelled all mortals and even all the angels in wisdom. Her mother did not allow Her to be touched by other hands than her own, but she herself wrapped Her in swaddling clothes: and in this Saint Anne was not hindered by her present state of childbirth; for she was free from the toils and labors, which other mothers usually endure in such circumstances. 

So then saint Anne received in her arms Her, who was her Daughter, but at the same time the most exquisite Treasure of all the universe, inferior only to God and superior to all other creatures. With fervent tears of joy she offered this Treasure to his Majesty, saying interiorly "Lord of infinite wisdom and power, Creator of all that exists, this Fruit of my womb, which I have received of thy bounty, I offer to Thee with eternal thanks, for without any merit of mine Thou hast vouchsafed it to me. Dispose Thou of the mother and Child according to thy most holy will and look propitiously down upon our lowliness from thy exalted throne. Be Thou eternally blessed, because Thou hast enriched the world with a Creature so pleasing to thy bounty and because in Her Thou hast prepared a dwelling-place and a tabernacle for the eternal Word (Sap. 9, 8). I tender my congratulations to my holy forefathers and to the holy Prophets, and in them to the whole human race, for this sure pledge of Redemption, which Thou hast given them. But how shall I be able to worthily to treat Her, whom Thou hast given me as a Daughter? I that am not worthy to be her servant? How shall I handle the true ark of the Testament? Give me, O my Lord and King, the necessary enlightenment to know thy will and to execute it according to thy pleasure in the service of my Daughter."

Happy birthday, Mother Mary. Pray for us who are need of your Son's grace.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.

Analogy of Faith - What It Is and How To Use It

If you read older Catholic documents you will come across the term "analogy of faith." What does this mean?

The Analogy of Faith refers to the rule for the exegesis of Sacred Scripture. More precisely, it is the presupposition that whenever a text is obscure or difficult, don't try to create a new meaning or add your custom twist to it. Rather, read that text in light of tradition - primarily the papally approved Doctors of the Church.

Catholics are obliged to read Scripture in this way. This is why you should never use a Protestant "Study Bible." Instead, use valuable commentaries by the saints. Reading the Gospels? Then pair it with Saint Thomas Aquinas Catena Aurea (it's on the iPieta app on your iPhone, by the way). The Catena of Saint Thomas collects the Church Father's quotes on all the passages of the Gospels.

Especially in Catholic Apologetics on the internet, there is a temptation for people to give their "take" on a certain passage. This is not necessarily bad in a conversation or a discussion, but in a public forum, it can be very dangerous.

So remember the Analogy of Faith. It entails not trusting yourself or your own ingenuity. Rather, it relies on trusting the Church and her Doctors.

Holy Doctors of the Church, pray for us.

Our Most Recently Sainted Pope - He Gets a Bad Rap - An Intro to Saint Pius X

Saint Pius X, our most recently sainted Pope, gets a bad rap. 

First, there is the Society of Saint Pius X which by it's very association with the name "Saint Pius X" gives some people the hebejebes. The oddities of some in the SSPX (Bb Williamson!) can inadvertently be associated with that legacy of Saint Pius X. This is unfortunate and not necessary. 

Secondly, Saint Pius X has been tarred as an intolerant persecutor of academic freedom and inquiry. It is true that Pope Saint Pius X condemned modernism (which His Holiness called the sum of all heresies). Nevertheless, he was right to do so, and his canonization testifies to his great holiness and proper intention in seeking to destroy this heresy which seeks to undermine Christ, His Sacraments, and His Church.

If people today condemn the Church's most recent papal saint, perhaps that speaks more about our age than it does about the man.

Saint Pius X was the 257th pope of the Catholic Church, reigning gloriously from 1903 to 1914. He is the first pope since Pope Pius V to be canonized - a 400 year gap. He is the only pope in the last century with extensive parochial experience - a very good sign. Saint Pius X struggled against modernism and promoted traditional Catholic liturgy and theology. He reformed the Code of Canon Law, which collected the laws of the Church into one volume for the first time in Church history for the sake of simplicity. He promoted frequent reception of Holy Communion and lowered the age for reception of First Communion. He is often referred to as the Eucharistic Pope. His papal motto is from Saint Paul: "To restore all things in Christ."

Saint Pius X had a love for holy poverty, despite being a Pope. Growing up, he lived in a home with dirt floors. He would say: "I was born poor, I have lived poor, and I wish to die poor."

Once, when being applauded by the faithful as he entered Saint Peter's Basilica, he stopped them and said: 

"It is not fitting to applaud the servant in the house of his Master." Such was his humility.

His personal life was immaculate and his love for the Immaculate Virgin Mary was intimate and filial. 

I could go on and on. Please take time to learn more about this great pope and saint. And if you hear him mischaracterized as a grumpy and intolerant Pope, please defend his reputation and legacy.

Saint Pius X, pray for us.

Do you enjoy reading Canterbury Tales by Taylor Marshall? Make it easier to receive daily posts. It's free. Please click here to sign up by Feed or here to sign up by Email. Please also explore Taylor's books about Catholicism at amazon.com.